The life of Theodosius I
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Flavius Theodosius
Imperator Caesar Flavius Theodosius Augustus (as Emperor) 11 January, 347 - Hispania 17 January, 395 - Mediolanum, Italy (aged 48) Natural causes 19 January 379 - 17 January 395 (16 years) Gratian, Valentinian II, Magnus Maximus, Victor, Honorius & Arcadius Theodosian Valens, Gratian & Valentinian II Honorius & Arcadius |
Early Life
Flavius Theodosius was born on 11 January 347 - either in Cauca or Italica in Hispania, depending on the source. His father, of the same name, was a high ranking officer in Rome's military. Theodosius accompanied his father on his campaign to Britain in 368, where witnessed his father crushing the barbarian uprising there. He would end up learning much from his father, and eventually joined the military himself.
By 373 Theodosius had risen through the ranks of the military and was now appointed as the governor in Moesia Inferior, a frontier province. As was expected of being appointed to such a location Theodosius saw much combat while in this office, primarily against the Sarmatians and Alemanni who had threatened Rome's frontiers for much of the reign of Valentinian I. Theodosius proved himself a capable commander while serving in Moesia, successfully safeguarding the province and beating back the invaders.
After he finished his term in Moesia Theodosius retired to Hispania, possibly in protest to his father being executed for unknown reasons.
By 373 Theodosius had risen through the ranks of the military and was now appointed as the governor in Moesia Inferior, a frontier province. As was expected of being appointed to such a location Theodosius saw much combat while in this office, primarily against the Sarmatians and Alemanni who had threatened Rome's frontiers for much of the reign of Valentinian I. Theodosius proved himself a capable commander while serving in Moesia, successfully safeguarding the province and beating back the invaders.
After he finished his term in Moesia Theodosius retired to Hispania, possibly in protest to his father being executed for unknown reasons.
Accession to the throne
Valentinian died in 375, leaving his brother Valens ruling in the East. In his will he named his son Gratian as his heir in the west. However a number of generals declared his other son, the four-year-old Valentinian II, as emperor too. Gratian reluctantly accepted his younger brother as his co-emperor, but was likely aware that it was a ploy by the generals to have power for themselves.
By 378 Valens died during the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths. Valens had no clear successor to take over from him - his death being unexpected and a shock to his co-emperors in the west. Gratian, as the senior emperor in the west, elected Theodosius to be the next Eastern Roman Emperor as his experience as a general would be valuable in defeating the Goths and safeguarding the east.
By 378 Valens died during the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths. Valens had no clear successor to take over from him - his death being unexpected and a shock to his co-emperors in the west. Gratian, as the senior emperor in the west, elected Theodosius to be the next Eastern Roman Emperor as his experience as a general would be valuable in defeating the Goths and safeguarding the east.
Gothic War
Theodosius' first act as emperor was to crush the Gothic threat to the east. The Goths had numerous allies and had managed to gain significant footholds in Dacia and Pannonia Inferior. Control of these provinces were handed over to Theodosius by Gratian, in order to give him full autonomy over the conflict. Theodosius set about forming a new army, using mostly barbarians who had recently settled in the Roman Empire to form his legions. This would later prove problematic as their loyalty to Rome was questionable, and could not always be relied upon to deliver success in campaigns against the Goths.
After his initial failures to repel the Goths, Theodosius was forced to recruit more experienced soldiers into his army. However this took time, and it was more expensive to ship them in from across the empire. Eventually his determination paid off, and he was able to fight his way to Constantinople, which he could now use as his base of operations for the remainder of the war.
Theodosius eventually opted for negotiation instead of war. He offered peace and security within the boundaries of the Roman Empire for any Gothic leaders who were willing to abandon their allies. Many accepted the generous offer laid out before them, but the most important person to indulge Theodosius was the chieftain Athanaric. He was a powerful and influential chief of the Visigoths and was allegedly overwhelmed when he visited Constantinople to discuss the offer. He and many other Visigoth chieftains accepted the agreement with Theodosius, greatly reducing the threat to the Roman Empire. Some chieftains and tribes resisted, but now the threat was far more manageable and Theodosius was able to subdue them with little effort, often deploying guerilla tactics against the remaining foes until all willing were brought into the fold, and all others had been destroyed.
Despite his success with the Visigoths, Theodosius still found himself beset by the Ostrogoths in the Danube region. He managed to crush their forced in 382 while they were crossing the river, ambushing them with a fleet of ships. By the end of 382 many of the Ostrogoth chieftains lay dead, and their will to attack the Roman Empire had been broken. A treaty between the two factions was reached on 3 October 382 and the Goths were given permission to settle in Thrace.
As part of the agreement with the Goths, they were allowed to govern themselves for the most part, providing they sent troops to serve in Rome's army.
After his initial failures to repel the Goths, Theodosius was forced to recruit more experienced soldiers into his army. However this took time, and it was more expensive to ship them in from across the empire. Eventually his determination paid off, and he was able to fight his way to Constantinople, which he could now use as his base of operations for the remainder of the war.
Theodosius eventually opted for negotiation instead of war. He offered peace and security within the boundaries of the Roman Empire for any Gothic leaders who were willing to abandon their allies. Many accepted the generous offer laid out before them, but the most important person to indulge Theodosius was the chieftain Athanaric. He was a powerful and influential chief of the Visigoths and was allegedly overwhelmed when he visited Constantinople to discuss the offer. He and many other Visigoth chieftains accepted the agreement with Theodosius, greatly reducing the threat to the Roman Empire. Some chieftains and tribes resisted, but now the threat was far more manageable and Theodosius was able to subdue them with little effort, often deploying guerilla tactics against the remaining foes until all willing were brought into the fold, and all others had been destroyed.
Despite his success with the Visigoths, Theodosius still found himself beset by the Ostrogoths in the Danube region. He managed to crush their forced in 382 while they were crossing the river, ambushing them with a fleet of ships. By the end of 382 many of the Ostrogoth chieftains lay dead, and their will to attack the Roman Empire had been broken. A treaty between the two factions was reached on 3 October 382 and the Goths were given permission to settle in Thrace.
As part of the agreement with the Goths, they were allowed to govern themselves for the most part, providing they sent troops to serve in Rome's army.
Civil War
In 383 a new threat arose, this time from within the empire. A general in Britain named Magnus Maximus declared himself emperor and overthrew Gratian - who by now had become incredibly unpopular due to favouritism in the military. Gratian was killed in Gaul, leaving only Valentinian II to rule in the west, but as a boy he was not capable of actually ruling and instead relied on those around him. As Gratian had been responsible for Theodosius' accession to the throne in the first place, he felt he owed it to the Valentinian dynasty to protect the last of them.
For the time being, Theodosius acknowledged Maximus as emperor, provided he did not threaten Valentinian II and left his territories in peace. Maximus agreed to the terms, but still sought more power. By 387 Maximus had launched an assault of Italy, forcing Theodosius to march westwards with his army to counter the threat.
The two forces clashed in Pannonia at the Battle of the Save in 388. Maximus was defeated in the battle and fled westwards, but was defeated once more - this time being captured and executed following the battle. Theodosius commemorated his victory over Maximus with a celebration in Rome on 13 June 389. He remained in Italy after his victory, eventually leaving for Milan in 391 in order to oversee the creation of Valentinian's court and ensure the stability of the west. He appointed a number of his own trusted officials to guide the young emperor, in particular a Frankish general called Arbogast.
For the time being, Theodosius acknowledged Maximus as emperor, provided he did not threaten Valentinian II and left his territories in peace. Maximus agreed to the terms, but still sought more power. By 387 Maximus had launched an assault of Italy, forcing Theodosius to march westwards with his army to counter the threat.
The two forces clashed in Pannonia at the Battle of the Save in 388. Maximus was defeated in the battle and fled westwards, but was defeated once more - this time being captured and executed following the battle. Theodosius commemorated his victory over Maximus with a celebration in Rome on 13 June 389. He remained in Italy after his victory, eventually leaving for Milan in 391 in order to oversee the creation of Valentinian's court and ensure the stability of the west. He appointed a number of his own trusted officials to guide the young emperor, in particular a Frankish general called Arbogast.
Death of Valentinian
Arbogast proved to be a controlling advisor to Valentinian, and the two did not get along well. Valentinian summoned Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, to help him rid himself of Arbogast. He was found dead in his room before Ambrose could arrive. Arbogast claimed he had hung himself, but it is likely he had him killed for trying to break free from his control.
Arbogast declared Eugenius, one of his officers, as the new emperor in the west. However by now Theodosius was in no mood for games, and declared his own son Honorius as the emperor in the west, while his other son Arcadius co-ruled in the east. It was clear that Theodosius had no intention of sharing his rule with Eugenius, or Arbogast.
In September 394 Theodosius engaged Eugenius at the Battle of Frigidus, and after initially being repelled he defeated Eugenius on the second day of battle - supposedly helped by a divine wind that blinded their foes. Eugenius was executed following the battle and Arbogast committed suicide, leaving Theodosius and his sons as the unopposed rulers of the Roman Empire. Theodosius ruled over both halves, with his sons now each co-ruling in the west and east.
Arbogast declared Eugenius, one of his officers, as the new emperor in the west. However by now Theodosius was in no mood for games, and declared his own son Honorius as the emperor in the west, while his other son Arcadius co-ruled in the east. It was clear that Theodosius had no intention of sharing his rule with Eugenius, or Arbogast.
In September 394 Theodosius engaged Eugenius at the Battle of Frigidus, and after initially being repelled he defeated Eugenius on the second day of battle - supposedly helped by a divine wind that blinded their foes. Eugenius was executed following the battle and Arbogast committed suicide, leaving Theodosius and his sons as the unopposed rulers of the Roman Empire. Theodosius ruled over both halves, with his sons now each co-ruling in the west and east.
Religious Reforms
On 27 February 380 Theodosius, along with Gratian and Valentinian II, issued the Edict of Thessalonica. This edict stated that Nicene Christianity was the only state religion, and that all others should be disregarded. During his own reign years later, he further pushed his agenda by outlawing certain Roman pagan rituals, such as sacrifices and divinations.
By 393 any gatherings or festivities related to the other religions were banned. It is thought that the Olympic Games were also a victim of this, as it was considered part of the pagan cult. The last recorded games were held in 393 until it was revived in 1896.
By 393 any gatherings or festivities related to the other religions were banned. It is thought that the Olympic Games were also a victim of this, as it was considered part of the pagan cult. The last recorded games were held in 393 until it was revived in 1896.
Death & Legacy
On 17 January 395 Theodosius died from natural causes. It is not clear what ailment he died from, but it involved a build up of liquid beneath the skin, causing swelling. His body was buried in Constantinople and a eulogy was delivered by Ambrose. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over both halves of the Roman Empire. He was succeeded by his sons, with Arcadius ruling in the East and Honorius in the West. Both were young and inexperienced, and their rules would prove disastrous. The Roman Empire would continue to fracture until the west eventually collapsed in 476, and only the Eastern Roman Empire endured.
Trivia
- Theodosius arranged an impressive funeral for the Gothic chieftain Athanaric. This display earned Theodosius the loyalty of the Goths even after the death of Athanaric.
- During the initial stages of his war against the Goths in 379 Theodosius was bedridden with illness for months, forcing him to postpone the campaign.
- Theodosius was responsible for moving an obelisk from Alexandria in 390 and transporting it to Constantinople. It is now know as the Obelisk of Theodosius and still stands today.
- The ruins of the Forum of Theodosius can still be found today in Istanbul, Turkey. It was modelled after Trajan's Forum in Rome.
- In 390 the people of Thessalonica rioted due to a Gothic legion being stationed there. They killed a commander in the process, and Theodosius ordered the rioters to be cut down in retaliation. This act was condemned by Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan.
- The death of Theodosius is often regarded as the start of the Middle Ages. With his demise, the Roman Empire began to fracture and the West would collapse just over 80 years after his death. However the Eastern Roman Empire would endure for over 1,000 more years.