the life of Cicero
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Birth name:
Born: Died: Cause of death: Era: Political affiliation: Major Conflicts: |
Marcus Tullius Cicero
3 January, 106 BC - Arpinium, Italy 7 December, 43 BC - Formia, Italy (aged 63) Execution Roman Republic Optimates Social War |
Early Life & Education (106-91 BC)
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Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3rd January, 106 BC in Arpinium some 60 miles south-east of Rome. His family were of equestrian status and his father is said to have had strong connections to key figures of influence in Rome. He was distantly related to Gaius Marius through his father's side of the family. Cicero would be the first of his immediate family to hold office in the Roman Republic.
Cicero was well educated from a young age, becoming fluent in both Latin and Greek, a sign of being cultured in ancient Rome. He studied philosophy, history, rhetoric and poetry in Greece under his tutors, Archias and Apollonius. Cicero's was devoted to his studies and the rate at which he mastered them garnered the attention of many who were impressed with his skills. As he progressed in his education he integrated himself more with Rome's elite class, studying with the son of Gaius Marius as well as Servius Sulpicius Rufus and Titus Pomponius Atticus, who would become his lifelong friends. Cicero eventually began to translate Greek philosophical works into Latin so that they could be more widely read. This gained him the appreciation of many and only strengthened his ties to the elite minds across the Roman Republic. Cicero's philosophical learning would greatly influence him later in life. He embedded the principles of stoicism and Epicureanism throughout his later work, although he tended to favour virtue and service toward the Roman Republic as embodied by stoicism. Early Career (91-75 BC)
After finishing his education Cicero embarked on a very brief military career, serving in the Social War from 91-88 BC under Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompey the Great. Cicero knew almost immediately that this was not the life for him. He was disgusted by military life and warfare as a whole, preferring more scholarly pursuits and political interests.
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By 83 BC Cicero had begun his career as a lawyer which, thanks to his years of good education, he found very much to his liking. Cicero's first case as a lawyer was defending a man named Sextus Roscius who had been charged with patricide, a very serious crime in ancient Rome. Cicero successfully defended Roscius against all odds, but in the process incriminated others who were closely linked with Sulla, who was now dictator of Rome. Strangely enough Cicero was left alone by Sulla, although fearing the worst, he did not remain in Rome for long. Despite his misfortune of putting himself at odds with Sulla, his victory in court ensured his career would flourish, in the process making him a rich man.
Cicero travelled to the eastern provinces claiming it was to further his education and focus on improving his fitness - although it is likely he was leaving Rome long enough to be forgotten by Sulla. Regardless, Cicero did indeed study further in Athens where he honed his knowledge of philosophy, before going on to Rhodes to develop his oratory skills under his former tutor, Appollonius.
Around this time Cicero married Terentia, who was from a wealthy background, which would greatly help him pursue his ambitions of rising through the cursus honorum, the political hierarchy of Rome. Despite making significant advances in terms of his connections, he still required more money and better social connections if he was to ever realise his dreams. Terentia would eventually become devoted to helping Cicero furthering his career in politics.
Cicero travelled to the eastern provinces claiming it was to further his education and focus on improving his fitness - although it is likely he was leaving Rome long enough to be forgotten by Sulla. Regardless, Cicero did indeed study further in Athens where he honed his knowledge of philosophy, before going on to Rhodes to develop his oratory skills under his former tutor, Appollonius.
Around this time Cicero married Terentia, who was from a wealthy background, which would greatly help him pursue his ambitions of rising through the cursus honorum, the political hierarchy of Rome. Despite making significant advances in terms of his connections, he still required more money and better social connections if he was to ever realise his dreams. Terentia would eventually become devoted to helping Cicero furthering his career in politics.
Political career (75-63 BC)
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Cicero's began his political career in 75 BC serving as a quaestor in Sicily. Cicero was only 30 years old at this point, the minimum age required to become a quaestor. Here he was responsible for the financial administration of the island, overseeing public revenues and expenditures. Serving as a quaestor was often seen as the first step towards greater political offices. Cicero served efficiently and effectively, greatly improving the finances of Western Sicily, though his success put him at odds with the governor, Gaius Verres. Verres was corrupt and had been stealing public money for some time. The people of Sicily called upon Cicero to remove Verres from power using his skills as a lawyer to prosecute him for his crimes.
Verres hired the best lawyer Rome could offer, a man named Quintus Hortensius Hortalus. Cicero spent some time preparing for the case, gathering as much information and as many testimonials as he could. Eventually he came face to face with Hortalus in court where he used his extensive oratory and legal training to out perform the veteran lawyer. Cicero's victory over Hortalus, and thus successful prosecution of Verres, advanced his career more than he could possibly have imagined. Thanks to his display of magnificent oratory, Cicero quickly advanced through the cursus honorum serving as aedile in 69 BC and praetor in 66 BC at the age of 40, which again he attained at the minimum age required. He aligned himself with the Optimates faction of Roman politics - especially with the up and coming Pompey the Great, both of whom shared a dislike for Marcus Crassus, the richest man in Rome. Most of the Optimates, however, never properly accepted him into their circle as he was not of the patrician class. Despite his humble origins, Cicero achieved his goal of climbing the political ladder when he was elected consul in 63 BC at the age of 43. |
Bust of Cicero. By from en wikipedia. Vintage public domain image found, scanned, and uploaded by Infrogmation., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=240145
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Consulship & Catiline COnspiracy (63 BC)
Cicero's consulship would be an eventful year. He, and his co-consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida, uncovered a plot to assassinate them and overthrow the Roman Republic. The conspiracy was spearheaded by a man named Lucius Sergius Catiline - a senator from a patrician family. Cicero realised he needed to act swiftly to stop the threat and declared martial law. He delivered a number of speeches attacking Catiline and his supporters, successfully exposing their vices and crimes and ultimately driving them from Rome.
While in hiding Catiline continued to try and destabilise Rome while also attempting to recruit foreign tribes to their cause. Cicero managed to procure physical evidence of treason when he intercepted letters between Catiline and these numerous tribes. Cataline and his followers were subsequently summoned before the Senate to answer for their crimes and face judgement.
The Senate feared that anything less than the death penalty might not remove the threat of the conspirators. Many were in favour of this course of action and few spoke out against it. Although one particular person did: Julius Caesar. He argued that it might make martyrs of the accused and that they should instead be separated across different towns in Italy and imprisoned for life. Many began to see Caesar's reasoning but Cato the Younger managed to sway the Senate, and Cicero, back in favour of the death penalty. Catiline and his followers were taken to Tullianum where they were executed by strangulation.
For his leading role in quashing the conspiracy Cicero was granted the title of 'Pater Patriae' or 'Father of the Country'. Cicero's actions won him popularity with other senators from both political factions, as well as among the people of Rome. However his act of executing the conspirators without trial weighed heavily on his mind, and he feared one day someone would use this against him.
While in hiding Catiline continued to try and destabilise Rome while also attempting to recruit foreign tribes to their cause. Cicero managed to procure physical evidence of treason when he intercepted letters between Catiline and these numerous tribes. Cataline and his followers were subsequently summoned before the Senate to answer for their crimes and face judgement.
The Senate feared that anything less than the death penalty might not remove the threat of the conspirators. Many were in favour of this course of action and few spoke out against it. Although one particular person did: Julius Caesar. He argued that it might make martyrs of the accused and that they should instead be separated across different towns in Italy and imprisoned for life. Many began to see Caesar's reasoning but Cato the Younger managed to sway the Senate, and Cicero, back in favour of the death penalty. Catiline and his followers were taken to Tullianum where they were executed by strangulation.
For his leading role in quashing the conspiracy Cicero was granted the title of 'Pater Patriae' or 'Father of the Country'. Cicero's actions won him popularity with other senators from both political factions, as well as among the people of Rome. However his act of executing the conspirators without trial weighed heavily on his mind, and he feared one day someone would use this against him.
Cicero launches a scathing attack against Catiline in the Senate. By Cesare Maccari - [1], Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1224785
Exile (60-57 BC)
In 60 BC Cicero was approached by the ambitious Julius Caesar with an offer of collaboration. Caesar proposed that Cicero join Marcus Crassus, Pompey the Great and himself in an alliance so that the four of them could dominate all aspects of the Roman Republic. Cicero refused the offer as his loyalty lay first and foremost with the constitution of the Republic, which would be undermined by such a union.
This decision proved to be disastrous for Cicero as it left him vulnerable before his enemies, whereas he would have been virtually untouchable. Two years later in 58 BC an act was passed that allowed the exiling of any persons guilty of executing Roman citizens without a trial - which Cicero had done four years prior during the Catiline conspiracy. This new law had been proposed by the Tribune of the Plebs, Publius Clodius Pulcher, who disliked Cicero greatly for providing evidence against him in a case some years prior. Failing to gather enough support to stop his inevitable expulsion, Cicero left Rome on his own accord and exiled himself in Thessalonica, rather than give Clodius the satisfaction of doing it. Clodius did however announce Cicero's exile after he had left and confiscated his property on the Palatine Hill which was subsequently dismantled.
Cicero fell in to depression but was frequently contacted by his childhood friends Rufus and Atticus with whom he had studied. Cicero's luck changed when Titus Annius Milo, another of his friends, was elected as tribune and proposed that the senate vote to relinquish Cicero's exile. Pompey also backed the motion and persuaded many to agree to it, which they did on 4 August 57 BC, with only Clodius opposing the proposition. Cicero returned to Italy in 57 BC when he disembarked a ship at Brundisium where crowds celebrated his return. He was also reunited with his daughter Tullia, whom he cherished.
This decision proved to be disastrous for Cicero as it left him vulnerable before his enemies, whereas he would have been virtually untouchable. Two years later in 58 BC an act was passed that allowed the exiling of any persons guilty of executing Roman citizens without a trial - which Cicero had done four years prior during the Catiline conspiracy. This new law had been proposed by the Tribune of the Plebs, Publius Clodius Pulcher, who disliked Cicero greatly for providing evidence against him in a case some years prior. Failing to gather enough support to stop his inevitable expulsion, Cicero left Rome on his own accord and exiled himself in Thessalonica, rather than give Clodius the satisfaction of doing it. Clodius did however announce Cicero's exile after he had left and confiscated his property on the Palatine Hill which was subsequently dismantled.
Cicero fell in to depression but was frequently contacted by his childhood friends Rufus and Atticus with whom he had studied. Cicero's luck changed when Titus Annius Milo, another of his friends, was elected as tribune and proposed that the senate vote to relinquish Cicero's exile. Pompey also backed the motion and persuaded many to agree to it, which they did on 4 August 57 BC, with only Clodius opposing the proposition. Cicero returned to Italy in 57 BC when he disembarked a ship at Brundisium where crowds celebrated his return. He was also reunited with his daughter Tullia, whom he cherished.
Proconsulship (51-50 BC)
While Cicero was content that his exile had ended, the Rome he returned to was much different from when he left. The First Triumvirate, the alliance between Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus which Cicero had refused to join, now dominated Rome. Realising that the institutions of the Republic had been sidelined by the Triumvirate, Cicero did not attempt a return to politics and instead focused on continuing his studies and writing. He did try to convince Pompey to remove himself from the alliance but did not succeed. Instead Pompey put pressure on Cicero to align himself with the Triumvirate instead of joining it. Cicero reluctantly agreed and delivered a number of speeches marking his allegiance.
After a time spent away from the world of politics Cicero was called upon to serve as proconsul of Cilicia from 51-50 BC. While in Cicilia he maintained peaceful relations with neighbouring territories, rooted out corruption, improved local infrastructure and expelled bandits and thieves from the province. Around this time Cicero also divorced Terentia, to whom he had been married for almost 30 years. In letters to his friends Cicero claimed she had betrayed him, but did not specify how.
With the death of Crassus in Parthia, the First Triumvirate was now breaking apart and civil war between Caesar and Pompey was becoming a distinct possibility. Cicero returned to Rome now that his pro-consulship was over.
After a time spent away from the world of politics Cicero was called upon to serve as proconsul of Cilicia from 51-50 BC. While in Cicilia he maintained peaceful relations with neighbouring territories, rooted out corruption, improved local infrastructure and expelled bandits and thieves from the province. Around this time Cicero also divorced Terentia, to whom he had been married for almost 30 years. In letters to his friends Cicero claimed she had betrayed him, but did not specify how.
With the death of Crassus in Parthia, the First Triumvirate was now breaking apart and civil war between Caesar and Pompey was becoming a distinct possibility. Cicero returned to Rome now that his pro-consulship was over.
Caesar's Civil War (49-45 BC)
In 49 BC, Caesar crossed the river Rubicon with his legion and headed towards Rome - an act of war. Cicero decided to ally himself with Pompey, who he saw as defending the Republic against Caesar's aim of dictatorship. As Caesar gathered more support the further south in Italy he travelled, opponents in Rome knew they could not remain there. Cicero stayed in Campania to try and win more supporters over to their cause while Pompey and the rest of his entourage fled to the east. Before long Cicero and his son also left Italy and sailed towards Dyrrachium where Pompey had encamped. Although Pompey won a decisive victory at Dyrrachium he was soundly defeated by Caesar a year later at Pharsalus. Caesar's victory scattered his enemies to the different corners of the Republic. Cicero decided he would surrender and, after a brief exile, he returned to Rome with his son who had fought at the Battle of Pharsalus with Pompey. Caesar pardoned them both, as he had done with many of his enemies.
Shortly after Cicero's return to Rome his daughter Tullia died sending him into a deep depression. Cicero read all the works by Greek philosophers on how to overcome grief in an attempt to move on with his life. Cicero's friends supported him through this time, and he even received a letter of condolence from Caesar.
Shortly after Cicero's return to Rome his daughter Tullia died sending him into a deep depression. Cicero read all the works by Greek philosophers on how to overcome grief in an attempt to move on with his life. Cicero's friends supported him through this time, and he even received a letter of condolence from Caesar.
Assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BC)
Cicero had hoped that Caesar might honour the values of the Republic, however this was not to be. Caesar was appointed as Dictator of the Roman Republic in 48 BC for 10 years, but this was extended to life in 44 BC. Cicero was shocked when on the Ides of March, only a month after Caesar's appointment as Dictator for life, he was murdered by a group of conspiring Senators. The conspirators had not involved Cicero in the plot as they were unsure where his loyalty lay, but he later proclaimed that he wished he had been included.
Cicero Vs. Mark Antony
With Rome in chaos following Caesar's death, Cicero stepped into the limelight once again, now leading the Senate. Mark Antony had taken control of Caesar's supporters and was starting to rally them against the murderers of Caesar. Cicero accused Antony of using Caesar's death to seize more power and remove any opposition.
Antony had taken the majority of Caesar's wealth and estates as his own, but it was, in fact, Caesar's great-nephew Octavian who was the chief inheritor. Cicero saw an opportunity to use Octavian against Antony and cause a rift in the Caesarian faction. Cicero begun a series of critical speeches, known as the Philippics, aimed at undermining Antony and turning public opinion in favour of Octavian. Thanks to Cicero's popularity his speeches were more effective than he could have hoped and soon Antony was declared an enemy of the state.
Unfortunately for Cicero, Octavian and Antony formed an alliance, along with Lepidus, known as the Second Triumvirate. Much like the first, it sought to dominate all aspects of the Roman Republic and make the three men the rulers of Rome. This alliance was officially recognised by the Senate as the ruling authority. The Triumvirs' first act was to drive Caesar's murderers from Rome and proscribe all who opposed them. Cicero was added to the proscription list by Antony despite Octavian arguing against it for two days. However Octavian had learned prior to this that Cicero had planned to use him as a pawn against Antony and then dispose of him. Therefore, it is questionable how hard Octavian tried to keep Cicero off the proscription list, although his actions in later life suggest he did at least regret it.
After purging much of Rome they set their eyes on hunting down Brutus and Cassius, two of the chief conspirators in Caesar's murder, who had fled to the east and were now calling themselves the 'Liberators'.
Antony had taken the majority of Caesar's wealth and estates as his own, but it was, in fact, Caesar's great-nephew Octavian who was the chief inheritor. Cicero saw an opportunity to use Octavian against Antony and cause a rift in the Caesarian faction. Cicero begun a series of critical speeches, known as the Philippics, aimed at undermining Antony and turning public opinion in favour of Octavian. Thanks to Cicero's popularity his speeches were more effective than he could have hoped and soon Antony was declared an enemy of the state.
Unfortunately for Cicero, Octavian and Antony formed an alliance, along with Lepidus, known as the Second Triumvirate. Much like the first, it sought to dominate all aspects of the Roman Republic and make the three men the rulers of Rome. This alliance was officially recognised by the Senate as the ruling authority. The Triumvirs' first act was to drive Caesar's murderers from Rome and proscribe all who opposed them. Cicero was added to the proscription list by Antony despite Octavian arguing against it for two days. However Octavian had learned prior to this that Cicero had planned to use him as a pawn against Antony and then dispose of him. Therefore, it is questionable how hard Octavian tried to keep Cicero off the proscription list, although his actions in later life suggest he did at least regret it.
After purging much of Rome they set their eyes on hunting down Brutus and Cassius, two of the chief conspirators in Caesar's murder, who had fled to the east and were now calling themselves the 'Liberators'.
Death & Legacy (43 BC)
Cicero managed to escape Rome before any action could be taken against him. Those on the proscription list were being systematically rounded up and killed and Cicero knew he could now allow himself to fall into enemy hands. Cicero had gained the loyalty and friendship of many, and became difficult to track down because of the protection provided by his allies who gave him places to hide or refused to report sightings of him.
On 7th December 43 BC Cicero was fleeing his villa in Formiae in order to board a ship to Macedonia when soldiers intercepted him. Realising there was no escape and that his time was up, Cicero accepted his fate by bowing to his executioners and bared his neck for the final blow. Cicero was beheaded and his head was displayed in the Roman Forum on the instruction of Antony.
Seeking revenge, Cicero's son Marcus joined the Liberators but was eventually pardoned by Octavian after their defeat, partly in guilt for not doing more to avoid Cicero's death. Octavian would continue to aid Marcus throughout his life as an attempt to pay what he saw as a debt to him, nominating him to be his co-consul in 30 BC and giving him the opportunity to clear his father's name while also tarnishing that of Antony.
Octavian would later honour Cicero by declaring him a paragon of Roman and republican values and one of Rome's finest scholars and orators. Cicero is credited with putting the Latin language at the forefront of the civilised world for centuries, to the extent that it endures to this day. His popularity was so great that graffiti has been found in the city of Pompeii, stating "You will like Cicero, or you will be whipped".
On 7th December 43 BC Cicero was fleeing his villa in Formiae in order to board a ship to Macedonia when soldiers intercepted him. Realising there was no escape and that his time was up, Cicero accepted his fate by bowing to his executioners and bared his neck for the final blow. Cicero was beheaded and his head was displayed in the Roman Forum on the instruction of Antony.
Seeking revenge, Cicero's son Marcus joined the Liberators but was eventually pardoned by Octavian after their defeat, partly in guilt for not doing more to avoid Cicero's death. Octavian would continue to aid Marcus throughout his life as an attempt to pay what he saw as a debt to him, nominating him to be his co-consul in 30 BC and giving him the opportunity to clear his father's name while also tarnishing that of Antony.
Octavian would later honour Cicero by declaring him a paragon of Roman and republican values and one of Rome's finest scholars and orators. Cicero is credited with putting the Latin language at the forefront of the civilised world for centuries, to the extent that it endures to this day. His popularity was so great that graffiti has been found in the city of Pompeii, stating "You will like Cicero, or you will be whipped".
Quotes by Cicero
"How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March!"
- Cicero's remarks after the assassination of Julius Caesar.
"They are dead" ('Vixerunt' in Latin)
- Cicero announcing the execution of Catiline and his followers.
"To be ignorant of what occurred before you were born is to remain always a child"
"A room without books is like a body with a soul"
- Cicero's remarks after the assassination of Julius Caesar.
"They are dead" ('Vixerunt' in Latin)
- Cicero announcing the execution of Catiline and his followers.
"To be ignorant of what occurred before you were born is to remain always a child"
"A room without books is like a body with a soul"
Quotes about Cicero
"It is more important to have greatly extended the frontiers of the Roman spirit than the frontiers of the Roman empire"
- Julius Caesar praising Cicero's exceptional oratory.
- Julius Caesar praising Cicero's exceptional oratory.
Trivia
- Both Cicero and Gaius Marius were born in Arpinium. Some believe that Agrippa was born there too.
- Cicero's style of oratory was a mix of Attic and Asiatic. Cicero is considered the second greatest orator in history, only behind Demosthenes who had perfected attic oratory.
- Cicero was initially agnostic, but turned to religion after the death of his daughter.
- Despite not being party to the conspiracy, after Julius Caesar's murder Brutus yelled for Cicero to restore the Republic.
- Cassius Dio stated that after Cicero's death Fulvia, Mark Antony's wife, removed his tongue and stabbed it with a hairpin, expressing her hatred of Cicero's most powerful weapon - his gift of speech-craft.
- The words ciceronian (which means eloquent speech or writing) and ciceron (meaning a local guide) are named after Cicero.
- The name Cicero comes from the Latin word for a chickpea, Cicer. This likely indicates that his ancestors made their money through chickpea cultivation. Some friends attempted to persuade him to change his name to something more suitable when he embarked on his political career, but he declined, instead stating that he would make the name famous.
- Some 900 letters written by Cicero survive to this day. Over 400 of them were written to his friend Atticus.