The Life of Gallienus
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Birth name:
Other names: Born: Died: Cause of death: Reign: Dynasty: Predecessor: Successor |
Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus
Caesar Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus Augustus (as emperor) c. 218 268 - Mediolanum, Italy (aged 50) Murdered October 253 AD – September 268 AD (15 years) Licinii Aemilianus Claudius II |
Early life
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The exact date of Gallienus' birth is unknown, but it is thought he was about 50 years old when he died, hence the estimated year of birth is 218 AD. He was born into a family with senatorial status. His parents were Valerian and Mariniana, and he had a younger brother, Valerianus Minor. It is possible he was born in Falerii, Etruria as during his reign this place could be found inscribed on coins commissioned by Gallienus. Around the year 243 AD Gallienus married a woman called Gornelia Salonina who gave Gallienus three sons, Valerian II, Saloninus and Marinianus.
In 253 Gallienus' father Valerian was appointed as commander of an army in support of the then reigning Emperor, Trebonianus Gallus. A commander of the armies in the Danube regions, Aemilianus, had been proclaimed Emperor by his own men and now sought to march on Rome. Before Valerian could arrive, Trebonianus Gallus had been defeated and Aemilianus sat upon the Imperial Throne. Valerian still pressed on however, intent on finishing his original mission. Aemilianus was killed by his own legions in order to avoid war. Valerian was proclaimed Roman Emperor with the support of both the military and the Senate in Rome. His first act was to make Gallienus his co-emperor. Faced with the complexity of running such an enormous empire with threats on both sides, Valerian left for the Eastern provinces which were under attack from Sassanid while Gallienus was left in charge of the West which was rife with usurpers and suffered barbarian incursions from across the Rhine and Danube. Early reign
During the early years of his reign Gallienus toured the provinces bordering the river Rhine, such as Germania and Raetia. He was eager to prove his worth as Emperor and successfully repelled a number of invasions in Germania and Gaul. These areas had been under threat for decades as they had become severely weakened through rebellions and civil war within the Empire. It is thought that he spent little time in Rome but there is evidence to suggest he returned sometime between 255 and 257 AD as he was appointed as consul. This was probably only a brief visit as he preoccupied with the defence of the frontier.
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Bust of Gallienus. By Albert Krantz - Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4650816
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Roughly five years into his reign Gallienus was forced to repel a massive barbarian invasion by the Alemanni, supported by various other Germanic factions. Some of the other barbarian tribes invaded Gaul and Hispania providing a distraction for the Alemanni, who managed to sack many provinces, including Germania Superior and Raetia. The Alemanni even succeeded in reaching parts of Italy, a feat not accomplished by a foreign invader since Hannibal some 500 years prior. The Senate hastily formed an army of Praetorian Guard and local militia as the Alemanni approached Rome itself. The Senate's army were able to defeat the Alemanni in battle, forcing them to retreat northwards. However, Gallienus who had dealt with the barbarians in Gaul and Hispania, was waiting and intercepted them at Mediolanum, present-day Milan. In the Battle of Mediolanum, Gallienus obliterated the remaining Alemanni and shattered their resolve to the extent that they did not even attempt to enter the Roman Empire's territory for another decade.
Revolts & later reign
Between 258 and 260 while both Emperors Gallienus and Valerian were busy with their own campaigns, the governor of the Pannonian provinces, Ingenuus, proclaimed himself Emperor. He knew that both Gallienus and Valerian were too distracted to oppose him. It is also possible this occurred at the same time as Valerian was defeated by Shapur I at the Battle of Edessa. After arriving at Edessa a plague broke out, sweeping through the city and killing a significant number of the population, as well as numerous soldiers in Valerian's host. The impact on the defences of Edessa were enormous. The Roman forces could not possibly hope to stand against the might of the approaching Persian army, and when they did indeed attack in 260, Valerian and the Roman army were soundly defeated. Valerian now opted for a truce and went to meet with Shapur I to negotiate the treaty. However Shapur I had other plans, and it was revealed that the treaty was in fact a trap. Valerian and his entourage were captured and held prisoner by the Sassanids, which essentially left only Gallienus as Emperor of the Roman Empire.
This only furthered Rome's plight and meant Gallienus now effectively had to rule both halves of the Roman Empire while also now facing the threat from Ingenuus. Gallienus realised that the unity of the empire hung in the balance, and he rode out with his cavalry corps under the command of Aureolus at once to defeat Ingenuus. Aureolus proved to be an exceptionally capable commander and swiftly defeated Ingenuus' forces at Mursa. Gallienus and Aureolus pursued Ingenuus to Sirmium which eventually fell to the Emperor. Ingenuus was either killed by his own troops or committed suicide, ending the rebellion.
The revolts in the Roman Empire were far from over. After Valerian's capture in the east and the defeat of Ingenuus, a man named Fulvius Macrianus, also known as Macrianus the Elder, now sought to stir more trouble. He had been serving as the Comes Sacrarum Largitionum, or Count of the Treasury, of the Roman Empire. He proclaimed both of his sons, Quietus and Macrianus the Younger as emperors of Rome. Gallienus had little power or influence now in the Eastern part of the empire and many cities that had not already fallen to the Sassanids were easily swayed and accepted them as their rulers. Quietus stayed in the East while both Macrianus the Elder and Younger marched westward with an army to destroy Gallienus. Gallienus responded by dispatching his distinguished general Aureolus once more, who successfully defeated the usurpers. Seeing that the rebellion would likely fail, Queitus' own men killed him at Emesa, ending the Macriani revolt.
The Macriani threat had barely been quelled before another usurper emerged. This time it was Postumus, a general who was declared Emperor and took the provinces of Britainnia, Hispania and parts of Germania and Gaul under his control. This group of provinces that broke away would be known as the Gallic Empire. It appears Postumus was a somewhat reluctant usurper, being encouraged by his own soldiers than desiring power himself. Postumus and his men had defeated some raiders near the Rhine and shared the spoils of war amongst themselves. He and his soldiers marched on Cologne, where Gallienus' son Saloninus was residing, and laid siege to the city. Eventually the defenders of Cologne handed over Saloninus and his guardian, Silvanus, to Postumus and his soldiers who killed them. Upon hearing of his son's death, Gallienus immediately raised an army to deal with Postumus. Gallienus waited until Aureolus, who was returning from defeating the Macriani in the East, could join him. Together they defeated Postumus' forces and followed them in their retreat back into Gaul. Sometime between 263 and 265 they besieged a city in which Postumus was hiding. It was during this time that Gallienus was reportedly struck by an arrow and was forced to leave the siege in order to recover. The siege would last for years to come and the Gallic Empire itself would not collapse until a decade later in 274.
In the last years of Gallienus' rule Rome was threatened once again by barbarian incursions. The sources on this are not clear, but Rome either suffered one major invasion which lasted for years or a series of smaller incursions. Either way, much fighting took place in Greece after Athens and Sparta were both sacked by invaders. Gallienus engaged the invaders in a battle in Thrace and succeeded in repelling the barbarians, sending them hurrying back to their homelands. Gallienus may have been in command of the forces at the victory during the Battle of Naissus, although some believe it was in fact Claudius II instead.
This only furthered Rome's plight and meant Gallienus now effectively had to rule both halves of the Roman Empire while also now facing the threat from Ingenuus. Gallienus realised that the unity of the empire hung in the balance, and he rode out with his cavalry corps under the command of Aureolus at once to defeat Ingenuus. Aureolus proved to be an exceptionally capable commander and swiftly defeated Ingenuus' forces at Mursa. Gallienus and Aureolus pursued Ingenuus to Sirmium which eventually fell to the Emperor. Ingenuus was either killed by his own troops or committed suicide, ending the rebellion.
The revolts in the Roman Empire were far from over. After Valerian's capture in the east and the defeat of Ingenuus, a man named Fulvius Macrianus, also known as Macrianus the Elder, now sought to stir more trouble. He had been serving as the Comes Sacrarum Largitionum, or Count of the Treasury, of the Roman Empire. He proclaimed both of his sons, Quietus and Macrianus the Younger as emperors of Rome. Gallienus had little power or influence now in the Eastern part of the empire and many cities that had not already fallen to the Sassanids were easily swayed and accepted them as their rulers. Quietus stayed in the East while both Macrianus the Elder and Younger marched westward with an army to destroy Gallienus. Gallienus responded by dispatching his distinguished general Aureolus once more, who successfully defeated the usurpers. Seeing that the rebellion would likely fail, Queitus' own men killed him at Emesa, ending the Macriani revolt.
The Macriani threat had barely been quelled before another usurper emerged. This time it was Postumus, a general who was declared Emperor and took the provinces of Britainnia, Hispania and parts of Germania and Gaul under his control. This group of provinces that broke away would be known as the Gallic Empire. It appears Postumus was a somewhat reluctant usurper, being encouraged by his own soldiers than desiring power himself. Postumus and his men had defeated some raiders near the Rhine and shared the spoils of war amongst themselves. He and his soldiers marched on Cologne, where Gallienus' son Saloninus was residing, and laid siege to the city. Eventually the defenders of Cologne handed over Saloninus and his guardian, Silvanus, to Postumus and his soldiers who killed them. Upon hearing of his son's death, Gallienus immediately raised an army to deal with Postumus. Gallienus waited until Aureolus, who was returning from defeating the Macriani in the East, could join him. Together they defeated Postumus' forces and followed them in their retreat back into Gaul. Sometime between 263 and 265 they besieged a city in which Postumus was hiding. It was during this time that Gallienus was reportedly struck by an arrow and was forced to leave the siege in order to recover. The siege would last for years to come and the Gallic Empire itself would not collapse until a decade later in 274.
In the last years of Gallienus' rule Rome was threatened once again by barbarian incursions. The sources on this are not clear, but Rome either suffered one major invasion which lasted for years or a series of smaller incursions. Either way, much fighting took place in Greece after Athens and Sparta were both sacked by invaders. Gallienus engaged the invaders in a battle in Thrace and succeeded in repelling the barbarians, sending them hurrying back to their homelands. Gallienus may have been in command of the forces at the victory during the Battle of Naissus, although some believe it was in fact Claudius II instead.
A coin bearing the image of Gallienus, issued during his reign. By Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=395343
Death & Legacy
Gallienus was to face one more revolt in his reign in 268. Perhaps the most wounding of all, his own trusted general Aureolus who had aided Gallienus so many times in his battles against various usurpers, turned against him and proclaimed himself Emperor. Gallienus and Aureolus' armies clashed near Mediolanum, modern day Milan, and Gallienus won a decisive victory over his old friend causing Aureolus to flee into the city where Gallienus laid siege.
Gallienus would never see the end of the siege however as he was murdered by his own soldiers before victory could be assured. Aurelius Victor and Zonaras claim that the Senate in Rome, upon hearing of his demise, ordered Gallienus' family to be put to death. Gallienus was succeeded as Roman Emperor by Claudius II, who the historians Aurelius Victor and Zonaras say sent a letter to the Senate asking them to spare the lives of Gallienus' family, albeit too late.
Gallienus would never see the end of the siege however as he was murdered by his own soldiers before victory could be assured. Aurelius Victor and Zonaras claim that the Senate in Rome, upon hearing of his demise, ordered Gallienus' family to be put to death. Gallienus was succeeded as Roman Emperor by Claudius II, who the historians Aurelius Victor and Zonaras say sent a letter to the Senate asking them to spare the lives of Gallienus' family, albeit too late.
Trivia
- All three of Gallienus' children were killed before reaching adulthood.
- Gallienus features in the Warrior of Rome book series by Harry Sidebottom.
- Gallienus had an impressive reign of 15 years, making him one of the longest reigning Roman Emperors. It is especially noteworthy as it came at a time of great turmoil where most Emperors did not last more than a few years at most.
- Gallienus received the title of Restitutor Orbis or Restorer of the World. His father Valerian also had this title, as would the future Emperor Aurelian.